Article Review: The Hepatic Physiology and Pathophysiology of Different Types of Hepatitis

Rashied Mohammed Rashied; Hala Fouad Kasim; Sabah A. Hamid A. Rahman

doi:10.55544/jrasb.3.1.31

Authors

Rashied Mohammed Rashied Collage of Science, University of Anbar, IRAQ.
Hala Fouad Kasim Department of Biology, College of Science, Mustansiriyah University, IRAQ.
Sabah A. Hamid A. Rahman Department of Biology, AL-Farabi University College, IRAQ.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55544/jrasb.3.1.31

Keywords:

Liver, Cirrhosis, Hepatitis, Characteristics of hepatitis viruses

Abstract

Globally, viral hepatitis is a frequent cause of liver disease with high morbidity and fatality rates. Since the liver produces a large number of hematopoietic factors and carries out numerous essential tasks that influence metabolism throughout the body. The purpose of this study is to identify hematological complications in patients with acute viral hepatitis. This information will be useful for treating and monitoring these patients. Also, everyone should be aware of the symptoms of hepatitis. Due of this, this article.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Ahmed M, Hassan S, Abd-Elsayed A, Hassan H, Hasanain F, Helmy A, (2011). Insulin resistance, steatosis, and fibrosis in Egyptian patients with chronic Hepatitis C virus infection. Saudi J Gastroenterol; 17(4):245-51.

Akarsu S, Erensoy A, Elkıran Ö, Kurt A,Kurt A, Aygün AD. (2008)Hematological abnormalities in patients with acute viral hepatitis A and B. Journal of Pediatric Infection/ Cocuk Enfeksiyon Dergisi.;2(3).

Alexander, I. K. and A. P. Kourtis. (2007). Hepatitis B. Last Updated. Am J Gastroenterol. 201(3).297-298.

Alnaqdy A, Alfahdi A, Alkobaisi M, Kaminski Z. (2013). Prevalence of autoantibodies patients with hepatitis C virus infection in Oman. Ann Saudi Med; 23(3): 127-31

Ameen R, Sanad N, Al-Shemmari S. (2015). Prevalence of viral markers among first-time Arab blood donors in Kuwait. Transfusion; 45(12):1973-80.

Andre P, Komurian-Pradel F, Deforges S, Perret M, Berland L, Sodoyer M,.(2012).Characterization of low- and very-low-density hepatitis C virus RNA containing particles. J Virol ; 76:6919-28.

Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Causes of death in HIV 1-infected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy, 1996-2006: collaborative analysis of 13 HIV cohort studies. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50:1387-96.

Aspinall, E. J.; Hawkins, G.; Fraser, A.; Hutchinson, S. J. and Goldberg, D. (2011). Hepatitis B prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care: a review. Occupational Medicine.61(8):531-540.

Bartosch B, Dubuisson J, Cosset L. (2013). Infectious hepatitis C pseudo-particles containing functional E1E2 envelope protein complexes. J Exp Med; 197:633-42.

Basu R, Basu A, Grudzien M, et al. Liver is the site of splanchnic cortisol production in obese nondiabetic humans. 2009;58(1):39-45

Beghdadli B, Ghomari O. Taleb M. (2009) Personnel at risk for occupational blood exposure in a university hospital in West Algeria. Sante Publique; 21(3): 253-61.

Belec L, Legoff J, Mohamed A, Bloch F, Matta M, Keou X, (2013). Cell-associated non-replicating strand (+) hepatitis C virus-RNA shedding in cervicovaginal secretions from chronically HCV-infected women. J Clin Virol; 27(3):247-51

Benjamin, A. and Margaret, L., B. (2010). Cost-effective control of chronic viral diseases: Finding the optimal level of screening and contact tracing. Mathematical Biosciences.224:35-42

Bertoletti A, Ferrari C. (2012). Innate and adaptive immune responses in chronic hepatitis B virus infections: towards restoration of immune control of viral infection. Gut; 61:1754–64.

Billerbeck E, de Jong Y, Dorner M, Ploss A. (2013). Animal models for hepatitis C. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol; 369:49-86.

Bukh J. (2012). Animal models for the study of hepatitis C virus infection and related liver disease. Gastroenterology; 142:1273.

Carroll, K. C.; Morse, S. A.; Mietzner T. and Miller S. (2016). Hepatitis Viruses. Brooks; J awetz, Melnick and Adelberg In: Medical Microbiology. 27th ed: 495-514.

Cavlek V, Margan G, Lepej Z, Kolaric B, Vince A. (2009). Seroprevalence, risk factors. and hepatitis C virus genotypes in groups with high-risk sexual behavior in Croatia.J Med Virol; 81(8):1348-53.

Chayanupatkul, M., & Liangpunsakul, S. (2014). Alcoholic hepatitis: a comprehensive review of pathogenesis and treatment. World journal of gastroenterology, 20(20), 6279–6286.

Chen W, Gluud C (2005). "Vaccines for preventing hepatitis B in health-care workers". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4).

Christina Y, Carolina J, Marshall Z, Grace T. (2017). Effectiveness of direct-acting antiviral therapy for hepatitis C in difficult-to-treat patients in a safety-net health system: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Med; 15: 204.

Cortan RS. Kumar V. Robbins (2004). basic pathology.7th ed: Saunders.

Dane, D. S. and Cameron, C. H. (1970). Virus-like particles in serum of patients with Australia-antigen-associated hepatitis. Lancet 1(7649):695-698

Daniel, L. (2004). Hepatitis B virus epidemiology, disease burden, treatment, and current and emerging prevention and control measures. Journal of Viral Hepatitis.11(2):97-107

Daniel, L. (2008). Chronic viral hepatitis as a public health issue in the world. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology.22(6):991-1008

Drexler F, Corman M, Muller A, Lukashev N, Gmyl A, Coutard B. (2013). Evidence for novel hepaciviruses in rodents. PLoS Pathog; 9: 3438.

Esmat G, Hashem M, El-Raziky M, El-Akel W, El-Naghy S. El Koofy N, (2011). Risk factors for hepatitis C virus acquisition and predictors of persistence among Egyptian children. Liver Int; 10: 1478-3231.

Fejza H, Telaku S. (2009) Prevalence of HBV and HCV among blood donors in Kosovo. Virol J; 6:21

Figueiredo F, Borges S, Martinez R, Martinelli Ade L, Villanova G. Covas T. (2014). Transmission of hepatitis C virus but not human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by a human bite. Clin Infect Dis; 19(3):546-7.

Fried W, Shiffman L, Reddy R, Smith C, Marinos G, Goncales F, (2012). Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl JMed ; 347:975-82.

Galibert, F.; Mandart, E.; Fitoussi, F.; Tiollais, P. and Charnay, P. (1979). Nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis B virus genome (subtype ayw) cloned in E. coli. Nature journal.280:646-650.

Gamage G, Read R, Bradshaw S, Hocking S, Howley K, (2011). Incidence of Hepatitis-C among HIV infected men who have sex with men (MSM) attending a sexual health service: a cohort study. BMC Infect Dis; 11:39.

Gane E, Stedman C, Brunton C, Radke S, Henderson C, Estes C, (2014). Impact of improved treatment on disease burden of chronic hepatitis C in New Zealand. N Z Med J; 127:61-74.

Gower E, Estes C, Blach S, Razavi K, Razavi H. (2014). Global epidemiology and genotype distribution of the hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol; 61:45-57.

Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E. (2016). Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13th ed, Saunders, Philadelphia.

Hajarizadeh B, Grebely J, Dore J. (2013). Epidemiology and natural history of HCV infection. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol; 10:553-62.

Hala Fouad Kasim (2022). Evaluation of some physiological and immunological parameters in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus. PHD. Thesis. Mustansiriah Univ. College of sci. Biology Dep. Iraq.

Hamed A.E.,Elsehar,M.,Elwau N.M.(2019).Managing Diabetes and Liver Disease Association .Arab J. of Gast.19:166-169

Hanafi I, Mohamed M, Kassem S, Shawki M. (2011). Needlestick injuries among health care workers of University of Alexandria Hospitals. East Mediterr Health J .17(1):26-35.

Hanafiah K, Groeger J, Flaxman D, Wiersma T. (2013). Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: new estimates of age-specific antibody to HCV seroprevalence Hepatology; 57:1333-42.

Haruna Y, Kanda T, Honda M, Takao T, Hayashi N. (2011). Detection of hepatitis C virus in the bile and bile duct epithelial cells of hepatitis C virus-infected patients. Hepatology ; 33(4):977-80.

Hatzakis A, Wait S, Bruix J, Buti M, Carballo M, Cavaleri M, (2011). The state of hepatitis B and C in Europe: report from the hepatitis B and C summit conference. J Viral Hepat ; 18 (1):1-16.

Herbig U, Jobling A, Chen P, Chen J, Sedivy M. (2014) Telomere shortening triggers senescence of human cells through a pathway involving ATM, p53, and p21 (CIP1). but not p16 (INK4a). Mol Cell; 14:501-13.

Huether, S. E. (2000). Structure and function of the digestive system. Understanding Pathophysiology.2nd edition. Mosby. USA. 917-941.

Hwang J, Lee D. (2011). Hepatic steatosis and hepatitis C: Still unhappy bedfellows? J Gastroenterol Hepatol; 26(1):96-101.

Immunization WHOEPO. (1996). Hepatitis B vaccine: Making global progress: World Health Organization.

İnan, N. and Tabak, F. (2015). Hepatitis B Virus: Biology and Life Cycle. Viral Hepatitis Journal.21(1):1-7. increased bilirubin and ferritin. Blood 2009; 113:1598-607

Jane P, Isla H, Abraham F, Anthony B, Graham S. (2015). Global distribution and Prevalence of Hepatitis C virus genotypes. Hepatology; 61(1): 77-87.

Jefferies, M., Rauff, B., Rashid, H., Lam, T., & Rafiq, S. (2018). Update on global epidemiology of viral hepatitis and preventive strategies. World journal of clinical cases, 6(13), 589–599

Koike K, Moriya K. (2005). Metabolic aspects of hepatitis C viral infection: steatohepatitis resembling but distinct from NASH. J Gastroenterol; 40:329-36.

Lagaye S, Shen H, Saunier B, Nascimbeni M, Gaston J, Bourdoncle P, (2012). Efficient replication of primary or culture hepatitis C virus isolates in human liver

Lavanchy D. (2011). Evolving epidemiology of hepatitis C virus. Clin Microbiol Infect; 17:107-15.

Lawrence, D.W (2010). Hepatitis viruses. In: Sherris Medical Microbiology, an Introduction to Infectious Diseases. Kenneth J Ryan, George Ray C and John C Sherris (eds.). McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division, New Yourk.5th ed. pp 541-553.

Li D, Sun L, Seth B, Pineda G, Chen J. (2005). Hepatitis C virus protease NS3/4A cleaves mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein off the mitochondria to evade innate immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 102:17717-22.

Lindenbach D, Evans J, Syder J, Wolk B, Tellinghuisen L, Liu C, (2015) Complete replication of hepatitis C virus in cell culture. Science; 309:623-6. 11

Lo B, Meymouna M, Boulahi A. (2011). The Prevalence of serum markers of hepatitis B and C virus in blood donors of Nouakchott, Mauritania. Bull Soc Pathol Exot ;92 (2): 83-4.

Locarnini, S. & Zoulim, F.(2010). Molecular genetics of HBV infection. Antivir Ther 15 Suppl 3, 3-14.

Machida K, Liu JC, McNamara G, Levine A, Duan L, Lai M. (2009). Hepatitis C virus causes uncoupling of mitotic checkpoint and chromosomal polyploidy through the Rb pathway. J virol; 83:12590-600.

Magiorkinis G, Magiorkinis E, Paraskevis D, Ho Y, Shapiro B, Pybus OG, (2009). The global spread of hepatitis C virus la and 1b: a phylodynamic and phylogeographic analysis. PLoS Med .6: 98.

Manns P, Wedemeyer H. Cornberg M. (2016). Treating viral hepatitis C: efficacy, side effects, and complications. Gut; 55:1350-9.

Manns P. McHutchison G, Gordon C, Rustgi K, Shiffman M, Reindollar R, (2011).Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomized trial. Lancet; 358:958-65.

Mark, F., M. H. Sleisenger and B. F. Scharchmidt. (1998). Sleisenger and Fortran’s Gastrointestinal and liver disease. 6th edition. Vol. 2. W. B. Saunders Company. USA. 1062.

Markov PV, van de Laar TJ, Thomas XV, Aronson SJ, Weegink CJ, van den Berk GE, (2012). Colonial history and contemporary transmission shape the genetic diversity of hepatitis C virus genotype 2 in Amsterdam. J Virol; 86:7677-87

Marshall, W. J. (2000). Clinical chemistry. 4th edition. Mosby. Edinburgh. 812.

Martin K, Hickman M, Hutchinson J, Goldberg J, Vickerman P. (2013). Combination interventions to prevent HCV transmission among people who inject drugs: modeling the impact of antiviral treatment, needle and syringe programs, and opiate substitution therapy. Clin Infect Dis; 57(2):39-45.

Mauss, S.; Berg, T.; Rockstroh, J.; Sarrazin, C. and Wedemeyer, H. (2017). Hepatology – A clinical textbook, 8th Edition, Germany by Druckerei Heinrich GmbH

Mehta, P.; Reddivari, A.K.R (2021). Hepatitis; Stat Pearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA. [PubMed]

Merz A, Long G, Hiet S, Bruegger B, Chlanda P, Andre P,.(2011). Biochemical and morphological properties of hepatitis C virus particles and determination of their lipidome. J Biol Chem; 286:3018-32

Mitruka K. (2014) Global snapshot of viral hepatitis morbidity and mortality .4th international Conference on Viral Hepatitis.

Mohammed and Abdelgader. (2016). Hematological Changes among Sudanese Patients with Acute Viral Hepatitis B. IJTDH, 20(2): 1-7

Mok MY, Huang FP, Ip WK, Lo Y, Wong FY, Chan EY, Lam KF, Xu D. (2010). Serum levels of IL-33 and soluble ST2 and their association with disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology 49:520–527.

Mudawi H. (2008). Epidemiology of viral hepatitis in Sudan. Clin Exp Gastroenterol,1:9-13.

Nagahara T, Okano J, Fujise Y, Abe R, Murawaki Y. (2010). Preventive effect of JTE-522, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, on DEN-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Biomed Pharmacother; 64:319-26.

Niederau, C. (2014). Chronic hepatitis B in 2014: Great therapeutic progress, large diagnostic deficit: World J.; 20 (33): 11595-11617.

Offit, Paul A. (2007). "Chapter 8: Blood". Vaccinated: One Man's Quest to Defeat the World's Deadliest Diseases (PDF). HarperCollins, 115–126, 136–140

Ortiz N, Lazaro P, Rodriguez-Inigo E, Bartolome J, Longo I, Lecona M, (2012). Hepatitis C virus replicates in sweat glands and is released into sweat in patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Med Virol ;68(4):529-36.

Ozougwu JC, Eyo JE. (2014). Hepatoprotective effects of Allium cepa extracts on paracetamol-induced liver damage in rat. African Journal of Biotechnology, 13(26): 2679 -2688.

Ozougwu JC, Jevas C, (2017) Physiology and Biomedical Research unit, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, Rhema University, Nigeria.

Ozougwu JC. (2014). Comparative hepatoprotective and antioxidant effects of Allium cepa, Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale methanolic extracts against paracetamol-induced liver damage in Rattus novergicus. Ph.D Research Thesis, Department Of Zoology and Environmental Biology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Paez A, Sharaf N, Rimlinger F. (2010). HCV iatrogenic and intrafamilial transmission in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Gut; 59(11): 1554-60.

Park J, Choi H, Choi H, Park M, Yie W, Lee Y, (2013). Hepatitis C virus NS5Aprotein modulates c-Jun N-terminal kinase through interaction with tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2. J BiolChem; 278:30711-8.

Parveen, K. and Michael, C. (2006). Kumar and Clark clinical medicine. 6th edition. Elsevier. Spain. 364-37l.

Pawlotsky M. (2014). New hepatitis C therapies: the toolbox, strategies, and challenges.Gastroenterology .; 146:1176-92.

Porth, C. M. (2002). Pathophysiology. Concepts of altered health states. 6th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Philadelphia. 643-644.

Prince, A. M. (1968). An antigen detected in the blood during the incubation period of serum hepatitis. Proceedings of Natural Academy of Science of USA.60(3):814-821.

Quan L, Firth C, Conte M, Williams H, Zambrana M, Anthony J, (2013). Bats are a major natural reservoir for hepaciviruses and pegiviruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 110:8194-9.

Razavi H, Elkhoury C, Elbasha E, Estes C, Pasini K, Poynard T, (2013). Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease burden and cost in the United States. Hepatology; 57:2164-70.

Saraswat V, Norris S, de Knegt J, Avila F, Sonderup M, Zuckerman E, (2015). Historical epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in select countries. J Viral Hepat; 22(1):6-25.

Schädler, S. and Hildt, E. (2009). HBV Life Cycle: Entry and Morphogenesis. Journal of Viruses.1(2):185-209

Schaefer, S. (2007). Hepatitis B virus taxonomy and hepatitis B virus genotypes. World Journal of Gastroenterology.13(1):14-21.

Schmitz, J.; Owyang, A.; Oldham, E.; Song, Y.; Murphy, E.; McClanahan, T.K.; Zurawski, G.; Moshrefi, M.; Qin, J.; Li, X. & Gorman, D.M. (2005). IL-33, an interleukin-1-like cytokine that signals via the IL-1 receptor-related protein ST2 and induces T helper type 2-associated cytokines. Immunity, 23(5): 479-490.

Schulze, A.; Mills, K.; Weiss, T. and Urban, S. (2012). Hepatocyte polarization is essential for the productive entry of the Hepatitis B Virus. Journal of Hepatology.55(2):373-383.

Sears ME, Genuis SJ (2012). Environmental determinants of chronic disease and medical approaches: Recognition, avoidance, supportive therapy, and detoxification. J Environ Public Health.

Selm B. (2010). Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among hemodialysis patients in a single center in Yemen. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl ; 21(6): 1165-8

Şenol A, Alayunt NO, Solmaz ÖA (2021). Role of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 in liver inflammation in chronic hepatitis B and chronic hepatitis C. Gulhane Med J.

Shepard W, Finelli L, Alter J. (2015). Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection.Lancet Infect Dis ; 5(9):558-67.

Sibulesky, L. (2013). Normal liver anatomy. Clinical Liver Disease, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases, 2(1): 1-4.

Simmonds P. (2013). The origin of hepatitis C virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol ;369:1-15.

Smith B, Bukh J, Kuiken C, Muerhoff S, Rice M, Stapleton T,(2014). Expanded classification of hepatitis C virus into 7 genotypes and 67 subtypes: updated criteria and genotype assignment Web resource. Hepatology; 59:318-27.

Strickland T. (2016). Liver disease in Egypt: hepatitis C superseded schistosomiasis as a result of iatrogenic and biological factors. Hepatology; 43(5):915-22.

Tabll A, Shoman S, Ghanem H, Nabil N, El Din GB, El Awady MK, (2011). Assessment of human cytomegalovirus co-infection in Egyptian chronic HCV patients. Virol J; 8: 343.

Tacke S, Tosello-Trampont A, Nguyen V, Mullins W, Hahn S. (2011). Extracellular hepatitis C virus core protein activates STAT3 in human monocytes/macrophages/dendritic cells via an IL-6 autocrine pathway. J Biol Chem; 286:10847-55.

Tanaka N, Moriya K, Kiyosawa K, Koike K, Gonzalez J, Aoyama T. (2008). PPARalpha activation is essential for HCV core protein-induced hepatic steatosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in mice. J Clin Invest; 118:683-94.

Thomssen R, Bonk S, Propfe C, Heermann H, Kochel G, Uy A. (2012). Association of hepatitis C virus in human sera with beta-lipoprotein. Med Microbial Immunol; 181:293-300.

Timm J, Roggendorf M. (2007). Sequence diversity of hepatitis C virus: implications for immune control and therapy. World J Gastroenterol; 13:4808-17.

Tong J, Lai P, Hwang J, Lee Y, Co L, Chien N, (2005). Evaluation of sexual transmission in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection. Clin Diagn Virol ;3(1):39-47

Tulchinsky, Theodore H. (2018). "Maurice Hilleman: Creator of Vaccines That Changed the World". Case Studies in Public Health: 443–470.

Wiegand J, Berg T. (2013). The etiology, diagnosis and Prevention of liver cirrhosis. Dtsch Arztebl Int; 110(6): 85-91.

World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA3.0 IGO

World Health Organization (July 2017). "Hepatitis B vaccines: WHO position paper – July 2017". Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 92 (27): 369–92.

World Health Organization (WHO). Global hepatitis report, 2017. Geneva: WHO, 2017.

World health organization. (2011). Viral Hepatitis in the south-east Asia region; Know it. Confront it. Hepatitis affects everyone, everywhere. WHO: Regional Office for South-East Asia, Indraprastha Estate, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, New Delhi 110 002, India:9-24.

World Health Organization. (2015). Guidelines for the preventation, care, and treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis B infection.

Yahia M. (2011). Global health: a uniquely Egyptian epidemic. Nature; 474(7):12-3.

Yan, H. (2012). Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide is a functional receptor for human hepatitis B and D virus. Elife 3 (2012).

Yousra A, Ghina R, Suzanne R, Dewolfe M, Laith J. (2013). The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Egypt: a systematic review and data synthesis. BMC Infect Dis ,13:288

Zein N. (2010). Clinical significance of hepatitis C virus genotypes. Clin Microbiol Rev; 13:223-35.

Zhang X, Lu Y, Rong C, Yang D, Li S, Qin X (2016). Role of superoxide dismutase in hepatitis B virus related hepatocellular carcinoma. J Res Med Sci; 21:87

ZhiLi N, PingAn Z, Qing T. (2016). Age and gender distribution of Hepatitis C virus prevalence and genotypes of individuals of physical examination in WuHan Central China. SpringerPlus ; 5:1557,

Zhong J, Gastaminza P, Cheng G, Kapadia S, Kato T, Burton R, (2015). Robus hepatitis C virus infection in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 102:9294-9.